Many came from the Ottoman Empire or the Austro-Hungarian Empire. They were oppressed minorities in the countries or empires they came from. Many of these new European immigrants came from nations that Anglo-Saxons considered inferior, and many of them came from peoples without states. The new, non-Anglo-Saxon immigrants, starting with the Irish in the 1850s and growing with the southern and eastern Europeans from the 1870s on, were neither Anglo-Saxons nor people of color. population with the 1848 conquest were granted citizenship, of a sort-but without shaking the firmly held idea that the United States was an Anglo-Saxon country. The Mexicans-primarily people of Spanish and Native American origin-who were added to the U.S. Africans and Native Americans may have lived in the territories claimed by the United States, but they were not citizens. The United States, as we have seen, defined itself from the first as a white, Anglo-Saxon country. The current anti-immigrant sentiment reinforces racial inequality. But the signs do not point in that direction. If new immigrants could succeed in challenging and transforming the racial order of the United States, that would be a good thing.

When Haitian immigrants assimilate, explains one study, 'they become not generic, mainstream Americans but specifically African Americans and primarily the poor African Americans most vulnerable to American racism.' As Toni Morrison suggested, racial inequality is so deeply embedded in the national culture and social fabric of the United States that assimilation has historically meant finding, learning, and accepting one's place in the racial order.

For Latin American immigrants, assimilation more often means shedding their American dream and joining the lowest rungs in a caste-like society where Native Americans and African Americans, the most 'assimilated' people of color, have been consistently kept at the bottom. For immigrants of color, assimilation means something very different than it historically has for European immigrants. Assimilation for people of European origin was accompanied by ongoing exclusion of people of color already in the United States. James Loewen points out that just as European immigrants moved out of their inner-city enclaves and merged into white America, African Americans were being residentially segregated as the phenomenon of 'sundown towns,' which explicitly prohibited blacks from remaining in them after the sun set, spread across the country. Black Puerto Rican author Piri Thomas described the generational gap among Italians in his Bronx neighborhood in the 1940s: the mothers and grandmothers accepted him as one of their own while the new generation attacked him as a 'spic.' One of the Italian boys speculated that if Piri had a sister, they could 'cover the bitch's face with the flag an' fuck er for old glory,' in a graphic rendering of Toni Morrison's point. And part of the assimilation into whiteness meant the adoption of white racial attitudes. But they, or more often their children, assimilated by becoming 'white' and experienced upward mobility as they melded into the white majority. 'The move into mainstream America always means buying into the notion of American blacks as the real aliens.' Italian, Polish, and Jewish immigrants may not have identified with, or been accepted into, white society when they first arrived in the United States. Only when the lesson of racial estrangement is learned is assimilation complete.' Blacks, she said, were permanent noncitizens. In 1993, Toni Morrison wrote, in a special issue of Time magazine on immigration, that the 'most enduring and efficient rite of passage into American culture' for immigrants was 'negative appraisals of the native-born black population. The following is an excerpt from, They Take Our Jobs! And 20 Other Myths About Immigration by Aviva Chomsky (Beacon Press, 2007).

Aviva chomsky